The Girl By Jane Kincaid Analysis - 1115 Words

The characters are being viewed are from a first-person narrative since the narrator is telling her story. The story is told in a very lax, kind of stream-of-consciousness voice, and the mother--except for two, speaks every line in the piece. b. Who are the characters being viewed? The characters that are being viewed in text are the narrator who is the â€Å"Girl.† Girl consists of a short set of writing concerning dramatic monologue in which a considered mother gives advice to her daughter throughout the literature, who is known as the girl. 2a. From what perspective are the events being viewed? The perspective that the events are being viewed in is in a first-person narrative. The mother is guiding her daughter about how to reside†¦show more content†¦The mother distributes a long list of advice to her daughter to teach her how to properly run a household and live respectably. The mother’s instructions suggest that community plays a large role in Antiguans’ lives and that social standing within the community bears a great deal of weight. 4a. How many voices are present within â€Å"Girl†? There is one voice present within â€Å"Girl.† In its place of doing all the listening, Girl is doing all the talking. â€Å"Girl† is not a word-for-word transcript of an actual conversation between the mother and daughter but a compilation of advice the daughter remembers her mother saying. The central voice is that of the unidentified mother; the reader must assume that the â€Å"girl† of the title is seemingly her daughter, though the correlation is never specified. b. Are there voices both acknowledged and unacknowledged (be specific)? How do you know? Yes, there are voices both acknowledge and unacknowledged. To explain, the texts that the reader reads in italicized are the narrators’ actual inner thoughts as if she was talking to herself. And the regular text is all the things that her mother would command her to do to cook, clean etc. Yet at the same time, there is bitterness in the mother ’s voice, and she takes her anger and frustration out on her daughter. Twice the daughter’s say (indicated by italics) disrupts her mother to protest the implications of her orders, but the motherShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Girl By Jane Kincaid1118 Words   |  5 Pagesfor two, speaks every line in the piece. b. Who are the characters being viewed? The characters that are being viewed in text are the narrator who is the â€Å"Girl.† Girl consists of a short set of writing concerning dramatic monologue in which a considered mother gives advice to her daughter throughout the literature, who is known as the girl. 2a. From what perspective are the events being viewed? The perspective that the events are being viewed in is in a first-person narrative. The motherRead MoreLiterary Criticism : The Free Encyclopedia 7351 Words   |  30 PagesAgathon, by Christoph Martin Wieland (1767)—often considered the first true Bildungsroman[9] Wilhelm Meister s Apprenticeship by Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1795–96) 19th century[edit] Emma, by Jane Austen (1815) The Red and The Black, by Stendhal (1830) The Captain s Daughter, by Alexander Pushkin (1836) Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Brontà « (1847)[21] Pendennis, by William Makepeace Thackeray (1848–1850) David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens (1850) Green Henry, by Gottfried Keller (1855)[22] Great ExpectationsRead MoreManaging Information Technology (7th Edition)239873 Words   |  960 PagesNetworking Strategy 321 PART III Acquiring Information Systems 327 Chapter 8 Basic Systems Concepts and Tools The Systems View What Is a System? 329 329 330 Seven Key System Elements Organizations as Systems 330 334 Systems Analysis and Design 335 Business Processes 336 Identifying Business Processes 336 Business Process Redesign 336 Processes and Techniques to Develop Information Systems 339 The Information Systems Development Life Cycle 339 Structured

What´s Ethical Relativism - 844 Words

Ethical Relativism in ethics is the belief that nothing is objectively right or wrong and that the definition of right or wrong depends on the prevailing view of a particular individual culture or historical period (www.dictionary.com). Ethical Relativism in the prescriptive view is: 1. Different groups of people ought to have different ethical standards for evaluating acts of right or wrong. 2. These different beliefs are true in their respective societies and 3. These different beliefs are not instances of a basic moral principle (philosophy.lander.edu). There have also been some criticisms of ethical relativism. Some people have had a numeral of complaints against this. The point that ethical relativism is correct it would mean that even the most ridiculous practices such as slavery and abuse of women would be â€Å"right† if they were looked at by the standards of society. Relativism would deprive people of means of rising morals objectives against bad social customs prov ided they are approved by ways of the society. Critics also say that it depends on what sorts of differences of social networks are at issues. It may seem like a good policy where benign differences between cultures are concerned. Critics also say that disagreements about ethics do not mean that there cannot be truth. They also state that there is no positive way to judge a society’s practice from the outside. The corruption example I chose was in charlotte North Carolina Mayor Patrick Cannon resigned afterShow MoreRelatedEthical Relativism : Ethical And Moral Relativism Essay1662 Words   |  7 Pagesarticle Ethical Relativism, the authors give a quick overview of what ethical relativism is by defining what it is and what its problems and successes are. One thing that is helpful for analyzing ethical systems is looking at the system through the lense of different ethical situations. Since this article lacks this feature, we will be looking at the definition of ethical relativism in the case of Slavery to help show the problems that occur with this system. We will begin by summarizing what is beingRead MoreEthical Relativism : Moral Relativism1198 Words   |  5 Pages1.) The concepts of Ethical Relativism teach that societies evolve over time and change to fit circumstances. It exists in our lives and compares to other theories, such as moral nihilism, skepticism, subjectivism, and so ft and hard universalism. Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one s culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. Moral Nihilism, Skepticism, and SubjectivismRead MoreEthical Relativism Is An Unsound And Unreliable Ethical Philosophy1742 Words   |  7 Pages Ethical Relativism is an unsound and unreliable ethical philosophy Mohammed Jweihan Ethics for a Global Economy Ethical Relativism is an unsound and unreliable ethical philosophy Cultural and ethical relativisms are widely used theories that explain differences among cultures and their ethics and morals. Morality deals with individual character and the moral rules that are meant to govern and limit one’s character. On the other hand Ethics is somewhat interchangeable with moralsRead MoreMoral Relativism And Moral Concepts972 Words   |  4 PagesMoral relativism is a methodological principle of interpretation of the nature of morality underlying ethical theories. It is expressed in the fact that moral concepts and ideas gave extremely relative, changeable and arbitrary. Moral principles, concepts of good and evil are different in different people, social groups, and individuals in a certain way connected with the interests, beliefs, and inclinations of people, limited regarding its value time and place. But this diversity and variabilityRead MoreRelativism, The, And Relativism928 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferent ideas have been passed on the name ‘relativism’, and the term has been applied to condemn all kinds of sights, sometimes for good reasons, sometimes for bad ones. It is simple arrogance to say that you are for or against â€Å"relativism† unless you say what you mean by the term. What anyone believes is true for that individual. What you believe is true for you, what I believe is authentic for me. We can call the position stated in such statements relativism because it denies that there is any suchRead MoreEthical Relativism Moral Or Immoral1382 Words   |  6 PagesDecember 19, 2014 Ethical Relativism Moral or Immoral Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one s culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. Moral or ethical relativism is the idea that what is considered moral or immoral depends on the accepted behaviors within the society in which the determination is made. Therefore, what is considered moral or ethical in one societyRead MoreAn Overview Of The Ethical1407 Words   |  6 Pagesï ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼Abortion: An Overview of the Ethical ï ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼11/1/2015 Randy St.Cyr PHIL200 Introduction to Ethics Dr. Carrie Pettermin Issues ï ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼ ï ¿ ¼Ã¯ ¿ ¼ÃƒËœÃ¯Æ'Ëœ Various philosophers through the centuries have had a tremendous impact on the way modern society thinks. ØïÆ'Ëœ Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) influenced modern thinking with his â€Å"God is dead† philosophy. This meant that there was no longer any room for God in an enlightened and civilized society. ØïÆ'Ëœ John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) helped popularize the philosophy ofRead MoreConcepts Of Ethical Absolutism And Relativism1644 Words   |  7 Pages2015 Concepts of Ethical Absolutism and Relativism Ethical relativism and ethical absolutism are two differing theories on how we ought to or ought not to decide on right from wrong. We question and evaluate morality in the terms of right and wrong constantly throughout life. The moral values that we decide to indoctrinate into our everyday lives are strongly motivated by cultural constraints in the eyes of some, to include anthropologist Dr. Ruth Benedict. Ethical relativism is defined as moralRead MoreThe Debate About Abortion And Abortion1709 Words   |  7 Pagesshould have a right to choose what happens and does not happen to their bodies. On the other hand, those who are anti-abortion, do so on religious grounds, and they cite that life is sacred and that, the fetus living inside its mother should not be killed for whatsoever reason. The circumstance brings forth two groups, those who are for abortion as the pro-choice and those who are against it as pro-life. Abortion then presents itself as an ethical issue and the relativ ism theory can help us understandRead MoreThe Fundamentals Of Ethics By Russ Shafer Landau885 Words   |  4 Pages Ethical relativism is not just simply one concept. It can be divided into two categories cultural relativism and ethical subjectivism. Cultural relativism states that what a culture finds correct is what is correct, within its own realm. Ethical subjectivism are what people as individuals find correct, or the values a person stands for and what they support whereas culture relativism is has a certain standard of morality held within a culture or society. These both view people as being in charge

Audit Independence Second Contextual Analysis

Question: Write about theAudit Independencefor Second Contextual Analysis. Answer: Threats To Audit Independence Introduction The substance of this paper in this manner surveys contextual investigations given inside the direction with a specific end goal to decide different dangers to review autonomy. The substance of this paper is sorted out into two areas where segment one of the written work recognizes different dangers to review freedom and give pertinent protections to the review dangers distinguished. Area two of the substance investigates a contextual investigation recognizing two business chances in connection to the second contextual analysis, examines particular review chance lastly different records which are probably going to be influenced by the yet to be directed 2015 reviews. Various payable accounts that are likely to be affected by the current audits are identified and discussed as within the content. Threats to AuditIndependence Reviewing of books of accounts is a standout amongst the most essential administrations inside an association as it decides the advance of a given firm. It is consequently vital for a firm to guarantee that reviews are constantly flawless and precise (Ratzinger-Sakel and Schnberger 2015). The exactness and legitimacy of reviews can however be affected by different components which may originate from inside the review firm or group and additionally the firm whose records must be looked into. This component which debilitates the credibility of reviews is resolved as dangers to review freedom. For a fruitful review, the review firm and the examiners ought to be offered opportunity to work on their will (Dhaliwa et.al 2015). The opportunity to inspectors is known as the review freedom and it is extremely critical for uncompromised reviews. As said above, review freedom which is an imperative calculates deciding the accomplishment of a review can be bargained by different elements. In such situations where reviewers' autonomy is traded off, the legitimacy of the reviews can't be defended and the review results are in this manner not solid. Considering the given contextual investigation one of CJ, a few review freedom dangers can be derived as takes after Trust as an Audit Risk In view of the Fourth and the second discussion s in the given contextual analysis, it is very clear that examiners autonomy is probably going to be traded off in light of the recognition and trust created by Michael and Annette. Review freedom ends up noticeably powerless in situations where evaluators are so comfortable with the customer firm. From the discussion with Annette, she says that, in light of the present review she and the group directed on the customer charge books of records, there will be no much review work to be done again in such records. From her announcement, obviously there is probability of misrepresentation covering in such books without serious review surveys (Dogui, Boiral and Heras?Saizarbitoria 2014). Annette has additionally created trust which is likely going to impact her review judgments. From the discussion with Michael, it is likewise obvious that his work will be affected by trust and recognition. Michael is so comfortable with the customer firm and his dad is one of the top authorities in the customer firm dealing with every single firm record. Constructing the contention in light of the family issue Michael will cover for the father in the event of any misrepresentation. SelfIntrigue Risks This one of the components influencing review autonomy and should trade off examiner's judgments prompting problematic reviews . The customer firm as uncovered from the contextual investigation is arranging take two top authorities of the review firm CJ to a completely supported tripe. Considering the meaning of the self enthusiasm as a risk to review autonomy, taking the two authorities to an outing will bargain their review judgments (Kwon, Lim, and Simnett 2014). This risk to review freedom comes subsequently of tokens and endowments from the customer or customer firm. On the off chance that where evaluators gets a token from the firm to be surveyed then their freedom is viewed as gone since individuals will dependably return favors. In this way for this situation the CJ firm will return supports by covering different fakes by the top customer firm authorities. Performance of Non Audit Services Another component that is probably going to influence review autonomy is terrorizing and embarrassment of and inspector. From the circumstance one given for the situation think about, the customer firm administration group wants to suck CJ as their review firm on the off chance that Gaffer neglects to give a discourse on the firm (Brown, Mason and Shelton 2014). For this situation the CJ Company is probably going to work in the support of the authorities with a specific end goal to keep their agreement. Review autonomy in such cases is not substantial as the review group will make review judgments reasonable to the business and keep the agreement. Being let go is constantly miserable and embarrassing there undermining to suck the organization from its obligation as the principle review firm is a method for terrorizing and is probably going to impact the reviews yet to be finished by the review firm CJ. Safeguards to Audit Independence Shields to review freedom are different routes in which dangers to review autonomy can be restricted, expelled or controlled. In view of the above examined dangers, different measures or shields can be set up to cover CJ as a review firm. The accompanying are a portion of the ways CJ review freedom taxicab is kept up. Rotation of Auditors Review moves for this situation implies use of review group returns where different examiners who played out a review task don't perform or complete review benefits on the rational firm. This will empower the review firm to limit dangers to review freedom which might be thus of nature and trust. As to discussion with Annette, her work is probably going to be bargained in view of the reason that she had worked in the customer firm preceding the current yet to be directed reviews, along these lines does not see the requirement for appropriate review audits on the assessment books records (Abbott et.al 2016). To stay away from such dangers the organization can in this manner utilize new inspectors in situations where a portion of the group knows about the review firm such Michael and Annette for this situation. Audit Rules and Codes of Conduct From the case situation one where the organization wants to threaten the review firm the review group can occasion such terrorizing by standing firm as per their implicit rules. Execution of non review benefits dependably prompts loss of review freedom therefore against the review rules. It is in this way with respect to the review firm to decline such scares in light of the law. Perception of review principles likewise empowers a review to work freely coming about into dependable reviews. Business Risks As indicated by the given contextual analysis, a few components which can come about into the organization accepting less benefit than the anticipated can be resolved. Business dangers are variables inside or without the firm structure which can restrict a firm from accomplishing their fundamental point which is greatest gainfulness (Ruhnke and Schmidt 2014). The substance of this paper however examinations two primary dangers from the contextual investigation as take after: Maintenance Risks The organization in the given review manages offers of different machines or types of gear and in addition their extra parts driving high upkeep administrations required. The organization offer upkeep administrations to their customers situated in different parts if the nation (Ruhnke and Schmidt 2014). As uncovered in the case study, different mechanical specialists are enlisted by the firm for direct upkeep administrations to the customers who have purchased equipment. Enlisting of such specialists is extremely costly as they go starting with one place then onto the next connecting different customers. Operational Risks Since most if the organization customers are remotely found, the firm administration spends a great deal of cash keeping in mind the end goal to contact them. The organization utilizes a market methodology where customer's advantage is constantly saved and met before whatever other component. As it were the customer intrigue is dependably firsts. In view of such system the firm gives support administrations to their customers as a warrant (Andon, Free and O'Dwyer 2015). Amid such operations as of now specified that the firm contracts specialists for such administrations whose all costs are secured by the organization. This decreases the overall revenue which the organization would have made without after deal administrations such support. Audit Risk Associated with the Case Study The particular review hazard which might be therefore from the business dangers is the intrinsic dangers. An inalienable hazard happens at the phase of review reports. It is dependably as aftereffect of extortion which are probably going to happen situated in the sort of operations the firm is included (Hurtt et.al 2013). Amid the upkeep administrations extortion is probably going to happen as mechanical specialists and also the organization bosses in the field may cite higher esteem utilized amid the operations contrasted with genuine esteem prompting a caracteristic hazard. Accounts Liable to be affected by the 2015 Reviews The given organization for the situation ponders manages payable records which are probably going to be influenced by the 2015 reviews. A buy record is one of the payable records which are probably going to be influenced by the reviews as the vast majority of the organization operations include buys (Hogan and Wilkins 2008). Amid buy of the stock the probability of significant worth misrepresentations us high making these records to be powerless against the 2015 reviews. References Ratzinger-Sakel, N.V. and Schnberger, M.W., 2015. Restricting non-audit services in EuropeThe potential (lack of) impact of a blacklist and a fee cap on auditor independence and audit quality. Accounting in Europe, 12(1), pp.61-86. Dhaliwal, D.S., Lamoreaux, P.T., Lennox, C.S. and Mauler, L.M., 2015. Management Influence on Auditor Selection and Subsequent Impairments of Auditor Independence during the Post?SOX Period. Contemporary Accounting Research, 32(2), pp.575-607. Dogui, K., Boiral, O. and Heras?Saizarbitoria, I., 2014. Audit fees and auditor independence: The case of ISO 14001 certification. International Journal of Auditing, 18(1), pp.14-26. Kwon, S.Y., Lim, Y. and Simnett, R., 2014. The effect of mandatory audit firm rotation on audit quality and audit fees: Empirical evidence from the Korean audit market. Auditing: A Journal of Practice Theory, 33(4), pp.167-196. Brown-Liburd, H., Mason, S. and Shelton, S., 2014. The effect of reliance on third-party specialists under varying levels of internal control effectiveness on the audit of fair value measurements. Working paper, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. Anis, A., 2014. Auditors' perceptions of audit firm rotation impact on audit quality in Egypt. Abbott, L.J., Daugherty, B., Parker, S. and Peters, G.F., 2016. Internal audit quality and financial reporting quality: The joint importance of independence and competence. Journal of Accounting Research, 54(1), pp.3-40. Ruhnke, K. and Schmidt, M., 2014. The audit expectation gap: existence, causes, and the impact of changes. Accounting and Business Research, 44(5), pp.572-601. Andon, P., Free, C. and O'Dwyer, B., 2015. Annexing new audit spaces: challenges and adaptations. Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal, 28(8), pp.1400-1430. Hurtt, R.K., Brown-Liburd, H., Earley, C.E. and Krishnamoorthy, G., 2013. Research on auditor professional skepticism: Literature synthesis and opportunities for future research. Auditing: A Journal of Practice Theory, 32(sp1), pp.45-97. Hogan, C.E. and Wilkins, M.S., 2008. Evidence on the audit risk model: Do auditors increase audit fees in the presence of internal control deficiencies?. Contemporary Accounting Research, 25(1), pp.219-242.

Wireless Technology Essay Example

Wireless Technology Essay It’s a beautiful day in the park, and you are enjoying the sunshine and the company of your friends. Then you remember. You have to do research for your science project. Hey, no problem. Your laptop is right next to you. There in the grass, you are searching the internet for ideas as birds chirp in the background. Wireless technology puts information at your fingertips from practically anywhere in the world. It allows you to connect with friends, family, and others with ease-even if there isn’t a telephone line for miles around. Wireless technology set you free, so you can create a workspace or fun space from practically anywhere. Modern technology has given us easy, convenient ways to transfer information, communicate and entertain ourselves. With wireless technology, we can do all these things on devices that work without wires or cables. Wireless technology includes cell phones, wireless internet connections, and handheld devices such as PDAs, Medical devices such as cardiac pacemakers rely on wireless technology to correct heard rhythms. A global positioning system (GPS) uses satellites and wireless technology to help people know where on earth they are and how to get where they’re going. We will write a custom essay sample on Wireless Technology specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Wireless Technology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Wireless Technology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Not long ago, if you wanted privacy for a phone call, you needed a long cord to pull the phone into another room. If you wanted to surf the internet, you had to do it in your home, your office, or on a public computer at the library. Not too long ago you had to stand up and turn a knob on the TV to change the channel. That’s all changed. In the modern times, you can chat with your friends on a wireless Bluetooth handset, send emails on your Blackberry, and download new songs to your Ipod and you can do it all without leaving that sunny spot in the park. What is wireless technology? Wireless technology lets you send and receive information without using wires. It can be said to include simpler, older devices like car radios and baby monitors – even garage door openers and TV remotes. But when we talk about wireless technology, we mean electronic devices that are linked, or networked, together. These devices can send and receive large amounts of information over radio waves. Radio Waves Radio waves are energy waves that move through space at a certain frequency or wavelength. Other kinds of waves travel the same way. These include microwaves, visible light, and X-rays. Different kinds of waves travel at different frequencies. A wave’s frequency is how often it goes up and down in one second. Nearly any information can be transmitted wirelessly, including sounds, text, images and video. To do this you need three basic parts. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   a transmitter 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   a receiver 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   a carrier wave the transmitter and receiver are electronic devices. They use wires and hardware to function. The carrier wave begins as a continuous wave pattern. But to carry information, it has to be modulated or changed. For example, the sounds in a telephone conversation produce movements called vibrations. These are combined in the transmitter with a constant radio wave, or carrier wave. When they’re combined, the radio wave has been modulated. The two signals travel together through the air. Modulation changes information on the wave into codes a receiver can understand. Wi-fi routers, antennas, and cell phone towers are transmitters. They modulate sounds and images over radio waves. Computers, cell phones and other devices are the receivers. History of wireless communication Electromagnetic waves were first described by a physicist named James Clerk Maxwell. He published a paper in 1864 explaining how light waves and radio waves move through space. At the time, people could communicate by electrical telegraph. Telegraphs send messages over wires, using Morse code. A practical telephone wasn’t invented until 1876. Maxwell’s theory was proven by physicist Heinrich Hertz. In the 1880s, hertz did experiments with a simple transmitter and receiver set apart from each other. When the transmitter produced a spark, the receiver responded with a smaller spark. This experiment showed that electrical energy had traveled across the room wirelessly. Remarkable innovation has been occurring in the wireless category of net centric technologies, facilitated by that hourglass architecture that puts few restrictions on the actual means of transmission. If we can use telephone wires, coaxial cable, or fiber to transmit information using TCP/IP, then why not electromagnetic waves? Despite the obvious disadvantage of tiny screen size, some analysts predict that the cell phone will become the most prevalent means of accessing the internet, outstripping the microcomputer in a short time. In some ways, the mobile internet access market be in the same phase that land-line internet access was in, in 1995, poised on the brink of an explosive growth phase. The internet enabled cell phone may also be in a position similar to the telephone, which was initially conceived as a â€Å"speaking telegraph†. Although PCs abound in industrialized countries, they are far less common in many parts of the world, and certainly more difficult to use and expensive to buy compared to a phone. The cell phone with internet capabilities may be a means to distribute internet access far wider than has been possible in the past. The kind of optimism may have prompted the billions spent by network operators around the world to obtain licenses to run third-generation (3G) wireless netw orks, which involves advantage technology that supports much greater data speeds than the current wireless networks do. Wireless technologies are in a very fragmented state now, with many types of devices on the market using a variety of connection strategies, often incompatible with one another. They can be grouped into three general categories, based largely on the distance the signal needs to travel: personal area, local area and wide area. In the wireless personal area network arena, a key goal is to develop ways for devices to synchronize and interact with one another without short run cables. A technology called Bluetooth is an important ingredient here, and many predicts that it will replace a good portion of the cabling infrastructure that clutters office desks, connecting computers to printers, personal digital assistants, and cell phones. For local area networks, wireless technologies offer another set of attractions, especially for laptop users. Wireless access points can be placed in various locations of a building, and those with laptops and wireless LAN cards can log in to the network from any nearby location. This is becoming very popular for public spaces that would be difficult to configure with data jacks, such as large conference rooms, libraries, airports, and outdoor patios or garden. Office workers can take their laptops to the balcony and enjoy some sunshine as they continue to access the network. Wireless LANs are also becoming popular in homes, particularly for people who have a high-speed internet connection and more than one computer, but don’t want to punch holes in their walls for the wiring. Wire area wireless networks offer many different opportunities for the workplace, including the internet-enabled cell phones and personal digital assistants. Retrieving your email from your PDA while waiting in the line at the airport is not difficult with these devices. The speed of connection is typically slow, but these devices work well for simple text. The â€Å"last mile† has been an obstacle to the delivery of high-speed internet access, especially to remote areas. Wireless wide area networks offer opportunities here as well. It is very expensive to deploy new wiring to every office or residence, but constructing towers with transmitters that can service wider areas is more feasible. Satellites can also be used to serve large geographical areas. In Alaska, for example, satellites are being used to provide Internet connectivity to libraries, schools, and municipalities in remote areas of the state. Wireless systems have been especially vulnerable to intrusion, and they illustrate the tense balance between the desire for openness and the concern for security. For example, employees give rave reviews to the development of the wireless network in which they can use their laptops any place near a corporate access point. Corporations have happily set those points up in cafeterias, in the outside gardens, in the auditoriums, and in the conference rooms to workers from their desktops and make it easy for   people and teams to log in to the network from anyplace on the corporate campus. Yet securing those networks is extraordinarily difficult, and people out in the parking lot or on the street can also access the network with their own laptops. Also â€Å"rogue access points† have been hung without the knowledge of the corporation, thus adding unauthorized â€Å"doors† into the network. Security threats are so common that is easy enough to launch a hoax that frightens people into harming their own computers, under the guise of helping them remove a threat. One such hoax, sent to addresses in the victim’s address book, warned that a virus has been infecting all of them and gave precise instructions on how to remove it. There was no virus, but the file that would be removed if the victim followed the instructions was critical to the computer’s operating systems. Standards As implied earlier, wireless technology are currently being deployed for personal, home, local and wide area networks. Standardization is important in order to support interoperability and reduce costs. Now we look at key WLAN, WPAN, WWAN standards. IEEE 802.11 specifications are focused on the physical layer (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) sublayer of WLANs. The MAC is consistent with the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard. The IEEEE standard developed by working group 802.11 was accepted by the IEEE board in 1997 and became IEEE standard 802.11-1997. the standard defines three different WLAN physical implementation (signaling techniques and modulations), MAC function, and a management function. All of the implementations support data rates of 1 Mbps and optionally,   2Mbps. Security, roaming, and QoS are also considered, although major improvements to the security apparatus have been shown to be necessary. The three physical implementations are as follows: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Direct sequence spread spectrum radio (DSSS) in the 2.4Ghz – the most commonly deployed technology 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Frequency hopping spread spectrum radio (FHSS) in the 2.4Ghz band 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Infrared light (IR) GPRS is a packet switched wireless data network operations in the GSM environment that enables data to be sent and received using GPRS devices in a more cost efficient and quicker way than was possible over the GSM cellular system. users can secure data download rates up to 53.6 kbps over GPRS compared to 14.4 Kbps via circuit – switched data over GSM. GPRS is a 2.5G wireless technology standard that was expected to improve the data services that can be added to GSM. ETSI defined GPRS in 1997 with the goal of providing packet-mode data services in GSM. GPRS is an over the air system for transmitting data on GSM networks that converts data into standard IP packets, enabling interoperability between the Internet and GSM network. In GPRS a single time slot may be shared by multiple users to transfer packet data. GPRS wireless technology employs authentication and encryption via standard GSM algorithms. One of the key gain from 802.11 standard is the ability for products from different vendors to interoperate with each other. This was not the case with WLAN products available throughout the 1990s. this means that as a user, one can purchase a wireless LAN card from one vendor and a wireless LAN card from another vendor and they can communicate with each other, independent of the brand of access point utilized. This gives the user the choice to choose the system that best meets the needs for each application. As a supplement to the 11-Mbps interoperability testing that will be performed through WECA, a number of vendors have successfully tested interoperability together at the University of New Hampshire Interoperability. Security Considerations for WLANs. IEEE 802.11 provides for security via two mechanisms: authentication and encryption. Authentication is the process by which one station is verified to have authorization to communicate with other stations or APs in a given coverage area. In the infrastructure mode, authentication is established between an AP and each station. Authentication can be either open system or shared key. In the open system, any STA may request authentication. The STA receiving the request may grant authentication to any request or only to those from stations on a user-defined list. In a shared key system, only stations that posse a secret encrypted key can be authenticated. Shared key authentication is available only to systems having the optional encryption capability. Encryption is intended to provide a level of security comparable to that of a wired LAN. Without question, a variety of extremely positive services have been made available to users around the globe with the development and rapid growth of the internet over the last decade. These very useful functions range from communications services, such as instant messaging and telephony, to rapid, real time online transactions, such as e-commerce, internet banking, online gaming, political activism, and online voting. Also, within the past few years, physicians have been able to access over the internet and through handheld wireless devices patients’ health histories and diagnostic records without having to rely on time delaying courier services. Not only have young billionaires have made with the creative development of â€Å"Google-like† search engines, but in addition, government around the globe have made use of the internet to collect homeland security intelligence as a means of keeping their citizens safe.